Introduction . Lithium-ion batteries have become increasingly prevalent in various applications, such as grid electric storage, electric vehicles, and portable electronic equipment1 , 2 , 3. However, the currently used lithium-ion batteries use flammable organic electrolytes, and lithium dendrites can grow, especially during the high-current cycling, and penetrate the separator, leading to the short circuits of batteries4 , 5, which would cause serious safety issues. Al...